• Local Factory Tours: Is there a candy factory, brewery, boot manufacturer or even a branch of the government mint in your area? These can be great fun, very educational, and the food & beverage factories often give out free samples afterward!
• Historic & Government Building Tours: Do you live near a state capitol? If so, consider touring it and enjoy learning some U.S. history in the process. Did famous people live in your town at one time? Has their home been turned into a museum?

• Walking Tours: Many cities in the U.S. publish self-guided walking tours that will take you to interesting sites and teach you things you never knew about your own backyard.
• Be a Host: Host a student from abroad and experience the opportunity to see your home through their eyes.
• Books & Movies: Do you never seem to have the time to read a good book or just goof off and go to a movie in the middle of the day? Now’s your chance–seize it!
• The Zoo: When was the last time you went to the zoo? You don’t need children (but all the better if you have them) to visit the zoo. Go reconnect with the planet’s wild life.
• Sporting Events: HOT DOGS! GET YOUR COLD BEER HERE! How about a taking in an afternoon baseball game? It’s a slice of Americana.
• Farmer’s Markets: These can present a cornucopia of activities–not only can you enjoy the fruits of nature but often there is free entertainment.
• National & State Parks: If you are lucky enough to have a national or state park nearby then now’s your opportunity to visit it.
• Hanging Out: Is there a posh area in your town where there are outdoor cafes and chic boutique stores? Treat yourself to a coffee and people watch for a while.
• Take a Class: Have you always wanted to learn the art of wine tasting? Thai cooking? Candy making? Often times these are offered locally and require only an evening of your time.
• The Arts: Consider your local symphony, ballet or theater arts troupe.
• The Museum: Don’t forget local museums–the focus could be as broad as natural history or as focused as trains. The larger museums often have special exhibits as well (such as items brought up from the Titanic). Which museums have you not been to recently?

So go for a nature walk, ride your bike, relax and most of all–have fun!

?

As a general rule you want to carry fewer things and you want those things that you do carry to be light as marshmallows. This requires you to be very discerning in choosing what to take with you.

I’ll tell you a funny story about this….

We once backpacked the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu in Peru and wanted to bring some gifts for the local children. We were told that what they most appreciated were school supplies–specifically colored pens and pencils. So we each carried a large zip-lock bag of assorted pens and pencils in our packs. By mid-way through the first day on the trail we were actively selling our fellow trekkers on the virtues of gifting the locals with school supplies…and we ever so graciously offered to divvy up our supply amongst the group. They weren’t convinced. It seemed no one wanted to add any extra weight to their loads and we were desperate to drop weight from ours. Where was the love? ;o)

The moral of the story is to question every single item you plan to put in your pack or on your person.

If you’re going with an adventure travel outfitter (such as Tucan Travel) then they will probably provide you with a list of packing recommendations. These should be tailored to your destination and activities and it would be folly to ignore. Take this list seriously. *Note: These tips are focused on individuals traveling with an outfitter; we won’t be providing any guidance around packing for food and shelter in this posting.

Footwear

The most important items are your boots. Don’t run off and buy the latest, greatest pair of boots a month before your trip (unless you plan to hike in them every week-end between now and then). Boots should be broken in well before you go or your feet will remind you daily of your lapse in judgment while you are on your trip. How humbling! Note that they should not be so worn that you risk them self-destructing half-way through your trip.

And if you normally wear orthotics in your shoes I would recommend that you take them as well as the insoles that came with your boots. Sometimes it’s good just to change out the insoles to give your feet some relief. Just like it does when taking off your boots at the end of the day and slipping your tired feet into a pair of sandals.

Apart from making sure your boots fit properly and are well broken-in before you go, select boots that have good lug soles, are at least water-resistant (if not water-proof), and provide good structural support. If you’re already an experienced hiker then you can appreciate the weight trade-off in a structurally sound pair of boots. If you’re at all in doubt, imagine putting 20-30 pounds on your back and walking around the neighborhood in your flip-flops. Makes my feet hurt just thinking about it!

When it comes to selecting socks this is a very personal preference but one thing is for certain–stay away from cotton for a variety of reasons. (This extends into all types of clothing as well, except perhaps for the ever handy bandanna.) Choose a blend of wool and synthetic materials, rather than pure wool. This will give you a good balance of warmth, strength, thickness and wicking capabilities. Try the socks on with your hiking boots to guarantee a good fit; you should be able to wiggle your toes without hitting the end of the boot and walk uphill without your heel sliding in the boot. The right sock will help you avoid gaping spaces or tight spots. And consider socks with extra cushioning in the heel or toe if these are places you’re likely to get blisters.

For the end of the day and evening you will want a light pair of shoes or sandals to change into and give your feet a much needed breather from the boots.

Backpacks

The next most important item is your pack. Most packs these days have internal frames; gone are the old days of looking like a walking piece of scaffolding. And today’s materials are durable, water-resistant, and light-weight. If you haven’t already done so we recommend taking the time to be fitted for your pack. Packs come in various sizes for both men and women and some packs can be adjusted further within a specific size to best fit the length of your torso.

When considering pack features look for the following:

Here are some great reasons to be conscious of your choices when presented with the many travel options:

You’ll Have a Richer Experience: By staying with locals, walking or riding public transportation, and purchasing from local markets you almost certainly will have more of an opportunity to rub elbows with the locals.

Being Green Saves You Green: You’ll likely save money by using fewer resources (fewer plane trips, public transportation, etc).

You’ll Feel More Connected: If you stay in hostels and cook in the common kitchens or eat breakfast in the common room while staying at the local Bed & Breakfast you will most certainly have an opportunity to visit with other travelers. This is a great way to (re-)connect with your fellow man (or woman)…and get some great tips on things to do in the area.

You’ll Gain a New Perspective: Attempting to live and/or travel in a green way opens up opportunities to see things differently; it expands the mind!

It’s Chic: If you’re into trends, this is a good one–we all benefit from jumping on this band wagon.

It’s Good for Future Generations: Venice is sinking and in the end this may simply be nature’s way of cycling but many places on earth are threatened by humans who individually may have good intentions but collectively can leave a small wreckage in their wake. Think about it…especially if you have children and/or grandchildren.

It’s Healthier: Walking, instead of taking a car or bus, is good for you and good for the environment.

It’s Good for the Environment: Enough said?

In every casual occasion, there is tea; in every serious occasions, there is, again, tea. The Chinese world would become almost dysfunctional if tea is taken away from it.

Younger generation greet elder generation with a cup of tea. That is a way to show their respect.

One note is that, in organizations and families, only people of lower rank serve tea to higher rank people. At least it was like that in the old days.

Today, the society is more liberal. Parents may pour kids a cup of tea at home, bosses may pour subordinates a cup of tea at restaurants. But it’s just parents and bosses being nice. It would be inappropriate for low rank to expect high rank to serve tea in formal occasions.

/> Apology

When we have a serious apology to make and words are not enough, we “pour tea and apologize”. That is an act of regretfulness and submissiveness. If the receiver drinks the tea, he/she accepts the apology.

/> Say “thanks for tea”

After guy A pours a cup of tea for guy B, you see guy B knocking his bended index and middle fingers (or similar varieties of finger tapping) on the table. You bet your savings that are secret agents. You are broke. They are just Chinese.

The story goes like this. In the Ching Dynasty some 300-400 years ago, the emperor liked to dress casual and visit his kingdom. Servants were told to stay low profile in order not to reveal their master’s identity.

One day in a restaurant. The emperor, after pouring himself a cup of tea, filled the servant’s cup as well. To the servant, it was a huge grace having the emperor pour him a cup of tea. Out of reflex, he wanted to kneel down and thank his master. But he was stopped because that would give away the emperor’s identity. So instead of kneeling on his knees, the servant kneed with his fingers.

That “thanks” knock is still in use today in the 21st century. ]]> http://www.factslane.com/chinese-tea-customs/feed/ 0 http://www.factslane.com/coin-grading-guide-system/ http://www.factslane.com/coin-grading-guide-system/#comments Fri, 27 May 2011 12:38:11 +0000 Fact Master http://www.factslane.com/?p=920 Probably no other subject has been more hotly debated in American numismatics by collectors, dealers and investors than grading. Since a dealer first charged more for one specimen of a coin than for another of the same type, date and Mint mark simply because the second had less wear or more detail than the other, there has been controversy.

Read about, and view examples of the various coin grades

The grade of a coin (note, medal or token) represents what professional numismatist and researcher Dr. Richard Bagg aptly called its “level of preservation.” The grading controversy arises both from disagreements over the grade of a coin and the enormous differences in price that can arise between two specimens of the same type and date of a U.S. coin, even when the only difference lies in the placement of one or two marks or surface abrasions from contact with other coins, commonly referred to as “contact marks” or “bag marks.”

The grade measures the amount of wear, natural mishaps and other surface degradation a coin has received after leaving the coining press. The more wear and surface marks a coin has received, the less it is worth compared to other specimens of the same coin with less surface degradation.

However, not all coins have received circulation wear since they were struck. These coins are called Uncirculated or Mint State. Rather than being easier to grade because there are no points of wear to determine, Uncirculated coins become much harder to grade.

A non-collector unexposed to the intricacies of grading might be expected to show surprise at this last statement. After all, he might think, it seems logical that a coin that has received less wear is worth more than one that has received more wear. However, if a coin hasn’t received any wear, how can it be different from other unworn specimens of the same coin? Suffice to say, there are graduated levels of Mint State, at least 11 (from Mint State 60 to Mint State 70), determined by such factors as contact marks, luster and — depending on the grading standard being used — the strength of the strike and toning. Therein lies the heart of the controversy.

For decades, the controversy lay mainly in the differences between the dealers grade for a specific coin and that of the collector. However, as the number of Mint State grades began to increase, grading became more complicated and values increased in greater increments between coins of different grades. In response, third-party grading services began operation.

The first third-party grading service, the International Numismatic Society Authentication Bureau, began grading coins in December 1976, several months after it began authenticating coins. It laid the groundwork for third-party grading services, all of which provide an opinion about a coins grade for a fee. INSAB was followed March 1, 1979, when the American Numismatic Association Certification Service began grading coins for a fee.

Another major step in third-party grading services was taken by the Professional Coin Grading Service, a private business founded in February 1986. PCGS is responsible for two firsts. It was the first grading service to encapsulate the coins it graded into hard plastic holders, nicknamed “slabs,” and it was the first grading service to use 11 levels of Mint State, from Mint State 60 to MS-70. It rapidly overtook ANACS, until then the most active of grading services in terms of numbers of coins graded. PCGS also published a grading guide, in 1998, the first of the private grading services to do so.

PCGS was followed by the Numismatic Guaranty Corporation of America. As encapsulated coins became more popular with dealers and collectors, existing services expanded their services. INSAB offered a “slab” service beginning in 1989, as did the ANA with its ANACS Cache.

In 1990, the American Numismatic Association sold ANACS — its grading and certification service — to Amos Press Inc., the owners of Coin World. ANA retained the right to authenticate — but not grade — coins, and now operates under the acronym ANAAB, the American Numismatic Association Authentication Bureau. Amos Press Inc. retained the ANACS name, but it no longer refers to the American Numismatic Association. Amos Press moved ANACS from ANA headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colo., to Columbus, Ohio.

Over the years, other grading services have surfaced, some specializing in paper money and world coins. One of the newest opened in 1998 – the Independent Coin Grading Company. Not all of the companies have succeeded; several have closed over the years.

Grading: What’s involved?
Dr. Bagg, in Grading Coins: A Collection of Readings that he co-edited in 1977 with James J. Jelinski, described the grade of a coin as its “level of preservation.” It is not entirely accurate to call grading the charting of wear on a coin. The very definition of an Uncirculated coin (also called Mint State) is “a coin which has seen no circulation” (in Official American Numismatic Association Grading Standards for United States Coins) and a coin with “no wear” (in New Photograde: A Photographic Grading Guide for United States Coins). However, Uncirculated coins are subject to other forms of surface degradation other than circulation wear.

A coin becomes subject to external factors affecting its surface from the second it leaves the press. The moment a coin is struck, it is pushed from the surface of the anvil die. The coin then falls into a bin of other coins. When the coin hits the previously struck coins lying in the bin, the portion of its surface coming into contact with the other coins will probably be marred. Then, as the coins are bundled into bags or other bins for shipment to commercial counting rooms and banks, the coins will scrape, scratch and bump each other.

Contact marks
The collisions between coins create a variety of surface marks called “contact marks” or “bag marks.” A contact mark may range in severity from a light, minor disruption of the coins surface to a large, heavy scrape. Generally, the bigger and heavier the coin, the larger and more unsightly the contact marks, due to the heavier weight of the coins.

The location of contact marks plays a major role in determining at what level of Mint State a coin may be categorized. For example, marks that are clearly visible in the field of a coin, or on the cheeks, chin or forehead of a Liberty Head device are more distracting than marks of equal severity hidden in curls of Liberty’s hair or the wing feathers of the eagle found on the reverse of many U.S. coins.

The size of contact marks also plays a role in determining the proper Mint State level. Larger marks, of course, are more distracting than smaller marks. Remember, however, that a contact mark 1 millimeter long is less distracting on a
large coin such as a silver dollar (diameter of 38.1 millimeters) than it is on a smaller coin such as a silver half dime (diameter of 15.5 mm).

The number of contact marks also plays a significant role in determining the proper level of a Mint State coin. A coin with numerous contact marks is less appealing to the eye than a coin with one or two distracting marks. The diameter of the coin plays a role here too. A silver dollar with five contact marks scattered across its surfaces may be judged appealing; a much smaller half dime with five contact marks may be judged less appealing, since the half dime has a smaller surface area in which the marks appear.

Luster
Another factor involved in determining the level of Mint State and high-level circulated grades is luster. “Luster is simply the way light reflects from the microscopic flow lines of a coin,” according to ANACS grader-authenticator Michael Fahey in “Basic Grading,” a reprint from his series of articles in the American Numismatic Associations The Numismatist. James L. Halperin, author of the Numismatic Certification Institutes The NCI Grading Guide, defines luster as, “The brightness of a coin which results from the way in which it reflects light.”

Luster is imparted to the surfaces of a coin at the moment of striking. The immense pressures used in the coining process create flow lines, the microscopic lines that trace the paths the metal took while filling the crevices of the die that compose the designs.

A coin with full luster is generally one that has a bright, shiny surface (although toning, to be discussed later, may obscure full luster), caused by the light reflecting off the surface of the coin. If the luster has been disturbed, the light reflects from the surface of the coin differently; the coin may appear dull.

Circulation wear erases the microscopic flow lines that cause the luster. Heavy cleaning or cleaning with a substance that removes a microscopic layer of the surface metal will also damage the flow lines and disrupt or eliminate the luster of a coin.

A Mint State coin cannot be lackluster. At best, an Uncirculated coin without full luster can be no higher than Mint State 63 under the American Numismatic Association grading standards. High-level circulated coins may show small patches of luster in protected areas.

Wear vs. friction
Once a coin enters the channels of commerce, it begins to receive wear. An individual reaches into his pocket to pull out some change and his fingers rub across the surfaces of the coin, creating wear. A coin is thrown into a cash register drawer where it bumps against other coins, creating more wear. A dime is used as an impromptu screwdriver, damaging the edge and creating more wear.

The amount of wear a coin receives determines its grade among the circulated grade levels. The high points of a design are usually the first to depict wear, since they are the most exposed. Then the raised inscriptions and date depict wear, and finally, the flat fields.

Circulation wear erases design details, ultimately to the point where the design features are only slightly visible to the naked eye. The separate curls of hair tend to merge, the eagles feathers are rubbed away and the inscriptions begin to disappear into the fields.

Coins with only the slightest hint of wear are called About Uncirculated, a term that, if studied closely, defies logic. A coin is either Uncirculated or it is not. Then, in descending order, are Extremely Fine, Very Fine, Fine, Very Good, Good, About Good, Fair (and many years ago, Poor). Graders use several levels for some of the higher circulated grades to denote, for example, an Extremely Fine coin of higher quality than another legitimate Extremely Fine coin (EF-45 vs. EF-40).

Many hobbyists differentiate between circulation wear and another form of wear labeled “friction.” According to Halperin, friction is “A disturbance which appears either on the high points of a coin or in the fields, as a result of that coin rubbing against other projections.” It is often referred to as cabinet friction, a term applied to the minute wear a coin received when sliding back and forth in the drawer of a cabinet used for storage by earlier numismatists.

According to some grading services, friction does disturb the luster of the coin, but it should not disturb the metal underneath. If it does, the disturbance falls into the category of wear, they believe.

Strike
Strike is “The sharpness of detail which the coin had when it was Mint State,” according to Halperin; Fahey defines it as “the evenness and fullness of metal-flow into all the crevices of a die.”

The amount of pressure used to strike a coin controls the sharpness of a strike. Design elements may also affect the
strike; if two large design features are centered on both sides of the same coin, there may not be enough metal to flow into every little crevice of the design, thus leaving some details weak and ill-defined.

A coin with a sharp strike has sharp design details. For example, the curls of hair on Libertys head are strong and distinct. The feathers on the eagles wings and breast are clearly visible. All of the other design details, legends and other elements are sharp and well defined.

A coin with a weak strike has weak and ill-defined design details. It may look worn, since design details are missing from the high points of a coin. However, luster is unimpaired. Lower striking pressures may not force the metal into the deepest crevices on the die (the highest point on the coin); thus, the weaker design details.

Grading services, dealers and collectors consider strike an important part of a coins grade. An Uncirculated coin relatively free of marks and with full luster may still be placed at the lower end of the Mint State scale if it has a weak strike.

Strike affects the value of a coin. A coin with a sharp strike will generally have a higher value than a coin with a weak strike, all other factors being equal.

Toning and color
As a coin ages, the original color changes in reaction to the environment. The original red of copper coins becomes brown (or green). Silver coins may tone into any color of the rainbow, depending on environmental factors. Gold is a more stable metal and even when immersed in seawater for centuries, generally shows little change in tone and color.

Many years ago, toned coins, particularly silver coins, were judged unattractive. Silver coins were “dipped,” placed into a chemical solution that removed the toning and restored the shiny surface by stripping away the outer surface of the silver or the dirt.

However, attractively toned coins have become more appreciated from an aesthetic viewpoint. A silver dollar with rainbow toning may bring a considerable premium because of its coloration. Still, coins that exhibit bright white, original surfaces are prized (although because of the speed with which silver tones, some question whether any coins of a particular age can retain their original surfaces). Coins that exhibit unattractive toning (referred to as tarnish) are considered to be of lesser quality.

Because attractively toned coins often bring higher prices, some unscrupulous individuals (called “coin doctors”) have devised ways of artificially toning coins. Some use the bluing materials used by gunsmiths. Others bake their coins in ovens using various substances to impart different colors. Some chemically treat coins.

Novices will find it difficult to judge between natural toning and artificial toning. Experience is important here. An individual who has looked at a large number of coins will find that he can determine at a glance whether the toning is natural or whether it has been artificially generated. Collectors should not pay a premium for an artificially toned coin.

Other factors
Other factors under some grading standards do not affect the grade but may affect the value. Under other standards, those same factors affect both the grade and the value of the coin.

Among these factors are die scratches, not to be confused with “hairline” scratches. Die scratches are thin raised lines on a coin, resulting from minute scratches in the surface of the die. A hairline is a thin scratch scraped into the surface of a coin inflicted after the coin is struck.

A close examination of a coins surface through a magnifying glass should indicate whether a line on a coin is raised, and thus a die scratch, or incused, making it a hairline scratch.

Hairlines tend to affect the value more than die scratches. Most grading services, however, will lower the grade of a coin for more extensive, distracting die scratches.

Adjustment marks are often found on older U.S. silver and gold coins. Planchets (unstruck coins) were individually weighed before striking. If found to be a little overweight, the excess gold or silver was filed away. The striking pressures often did not obliterate the adjustment marks, which may resemble a series of parallel grooves. Adjustment marks may affect both the grade and the value.

Eye appeal
All of the factors mentioned earlier are ultimately considered when graders, dealers and collectors decide on the “eye appeal” of a coin. Eye appeal relates to the overall attractiveness of a coin and ultimately determines its value. A potential buyer, whether he is a dealer, collector or investor, decides just how attractive he believes the coin to be.

Judging eye appeal is a purely subjective action. For example, a coin could have a strong strike and full details, possess full luster and have few large, distracting contact marks and still not have eye appeal if it has toned to an unattractive color.

When examining a coin, a buyer must decide for himself just how “pretty” the coin is and whether its attractiveness warrants the price being asked. Only the buyer can decide the eye appeal. Aesthetic judgments differ from person to person.

“Raw” coins vs. “slabbed” coins

When the Professional Coin Grading Service began grading coins in early 1986, it introduced a new product onto the market: the “slabbed” coin. A “slab” is the hard plastic holder into which a coin graded by a third-party grading service is sealed. The grading information is sealed into the slab as well. The slab permits both obverse and reverse of the coin to be viewed, but generally not the edge.

Proponents of the “slab” cite several benefits: 1. A coin encased within a slab is protected somewhat from environmental factors that could cause a deterioration in the coins surfaces, and a lowering of its grade. 2. By sealing a coin into the same holder that contains the grading certificate, a buyer is “assured” that a coin meets the grading requirements of a specific grading service, if graded accurately. 3. It permits the “sight unseen” trading of a coin (in other words, various dealers have agreed to purchase coins graded by a particular grading service at the grade indicated
in the slab, even without seeing the coin first).

However, in recent years, testing has shown that coins sealed in grading services slabs can continue to tone. That’s because the plastic is permeable; the chemicals that cause a coin to tone can permeate through the plastic or along the slabs seals. Collectors who own slabbed coins should inspect them routinely to ensure that the environment in which they are stored is not causing the coins to tone unattractively. (Unslabbed coins should also be examined regularly for the same reason.)

Individuals who do not like slabbed coins cite detracting factors: 1. A collector cannot handle the coin directly. 2. Slabs do not permit the edge of the coin to be viewed. 3. It may be difficult to form ones own opinion about a coins grade if it has already been encapsulated, since many like to grade a coin without having to examine it through a holder.

Another relatively new term is the “raw” coin. A “raw” coin is the nickname used by some hobbyists for a coin that has not been graded and encapsulated by a third-party grading service.

Grading guidelines

The following guidelines are not presented as grading standards, but as introductions to the terminology of grading and its usage.

A few words regarding grading usage. When two grades are linked together by a virgule — as in Mint State 64/65 — it may mean that the coin has two grades (the first grade represents the obverse and the second, the reverse) or that the coin falls into a range between the two grades. When two grades are linked by a hyphen — as in Mint State 64-65 — it means that the grade for both sides lies somewhere between the two grades given. Collectors might want to exercise caution about buying a coin graded AU-BU. Most collectors believe a coin is either circulated or Uncirculated –– it cannot fall somewhere in between.

Plus signs are used by many to indicate a coin slightly better than the numerical grade indicated, but not as good as the next numerical grade. A coin graded MS-60+ is better than an MS-60 coin, but not as good as an MS-61 coin. The term “Premium Quality” means the same thing as a plus sign: that a coin is in the upper range for that grade and is very close to the next grade level.

Many dealers and collectors use adjectives instead of numerals, or combine adjectives and numerals when speaking about Mint State coins. A superb or superb gem coin is generally MS-67. A gem coin is usually MS-65. Some dealers use choice to describe an MS-63 coin, and others use choice for an MS-65 coin. Mint State 60 coins are generally referred to as Uncirculated or Brilliant Uncirculated; sometimes an MS-60 coin is called typical Uncirculated. Collectors should determine what adjectival “system” the dealer uses when no numerals are present because of the
disagreement over what the adjectives represent numerically.

Buyers should remember that different dealers, different collectors and investors use different grading systems. Although various grading services use an 11-point Mint State system, this does not necessarily mean they use the same criteria for assigning grades. In fact, there is no universally accepted standard for determining grades for U.S. coins.

Hobbyists can have legitimate differences of opinion over a coins grade.

Grading is subjective, not objective.

Collectors should also know that grading standards can change over time. Standards sometimes tighten up, with a coin once considered Mint State 65 now considered MS-64. Standards can also loosen, with an MS-64 coin grading MS-65 under the looser standards. This can be troublesome, especially if a novice collector buys a slabbed coin graded during a period of loose standards; even if the slab is marked as MS-65, current standards might consider the coin no higher than MS-64. That’s why it is vital that collectors learn how to grade coins, in order to protect themselves when buying coins.

Read about, and view examples of various grades

Proof: Traditionally, Proof describes a method of manufacture, not a grade. However, since numerals are often assigned to Proof coins, there are different qualities of Proof coins; in effect, different grades. A circulated Proof is often called an “impaired Proof.” When abbreviated, Proof generally appears as PF.

Brilliant Proof coins are struck on highly polished planchets, using slower, high-pressure presses; coins are struck two or more times to bring up greater detail in the design.

Mint State and Uncirculated: The two terms are interchangeable and describe a coin that has no wear. To qualify as Mint State, a coin must not have any level of wear. Even the slightest amount of wear will drop the coin into the About Uncirculated level. (Coins described by some dealers as “Borderline Uncirculated” have wear and are actually About Uncirculated. New collectors should be aware of this fact and not pay a Brilliant ) Mint State is most often used with numerals. Mint State is abbreviated as MS.

The numerical Mint State system so widely used in the current rare coin market is based on a system created by Dr. William H. Sheldon for the U.S. large cents of 1793 to 1814. When the numerical system began to spread to other series, three levels of Mint State were used: Mint State 60, for an Uncirculated coin of average luster, strike and marks; MS-65, an Uncirculated coin of above average quality; and MS-70, a perfect coin as regards luster, strike and marks. All 11 numbers are now used from MS-60 to MS-70.

Uncirculated is usually abbreviated as Unc. It often appears as Brilliant Uncirculated, abbreviated as BU. Sometimes used with numerals, generally as Unc. 60, and so on. Some dealers use a plus sign to indicate a coin better than one level of Mint State, but not as good as the next level.

About Uncirculated: This is a coin with only the barest traces of wear on the highest points of the design. It is abbreviated AU and often appears with numerals as AU-50, AU-55 and AU-58. The term has gained acceptance despite seeming inconsistency. Some people in the hobby still say that no coin can be About Uncirculated — it is either Uncirculated or it is not. Some use Almost Uncirculated, although all major U.S. grading guides use “About.” The AU-58 grade has been described as an MS-63 coin with just the slightest hint of wear. It should have fewer contact marks than lower level Mint State coins: MS-60, MS-61 and MS-62. It may be more attractive and more valuable than these lower Mint State coins.

Extremely Fine: Light overall wear on highest points, but with all design elements sharp and clear, distinguishes this grade. Most hobbyists abbreviate it as EF, although a few use XF. It appears as EF-40 and EF-45.

Very Fine: The coin has light to moderate even wear on surface and high points of design. Abbreviated VF, it appears with numerals as VF-20 and VF-30. The abbreviations VF-25 and VF-35 are infrequently used.

Fine: The wear is considerable although the entire design is still strong and visible. It is abbreviated as F-12.

Very Good: The design and surface are well worn, and main features are clear but flat. Abbreviated as VG, it is used with numerals as VG-8 and VG-10.

Good: Design and surface are heavily worn, with some details weak and many details flat. It is abbreviated only when used with numerals, G-4; G-6 is infrequently used. Ironically, a coin in Good condition is not a “good” coin to collect; a Good coin is generally the lowest collectible grade.

About Good: The design is heavily worn with surface wear

Net Grading

Net grading is a term used when referring to coins that have problems. For example, a coin might have XF wear, but have been scratched, corroded, cleaned, etc. Often, such a coin will be given a “net” grade, say VF reflecting the undesirable issues. This is meant to reflect that while the coin may technically grade XF, the market value should be somewhere close to that of an average VF coin. While completely problem free coins are the exception, net grading is probably applied to less than a fourth of the coins.

Grading Levels
MS 60-70 Uncirculated
AU 50, 53, 55, 58 About Uncirculated
XF 40, 45 Extremely Fine
VF 20, 25, 30, 35 Very Fine
F 12, 15 Fine
VG 8, 10 Very Good
G 4, 6 Good
AG 3 About Good
FR 2 Fair
PR 1 Poor

Picture of AsbestosHowever, it wasn’t until 1879, when asbestos became a commercially mined product that reports of its discovery began to rise. During this time, newspapers began to report on the use of asbestos throughout antiquity. The Chester Daily Times wrote on September 26, 1879, “the guests were amazed to see a page enter, and, on bended knee, present to his royal master a salver, upon which was carelessly folded a soiled white table-cloth. Charlemagne, not in the least surprised, threw it into a fire evidently prepared for the purpose… A few moments passed, and the monarch raised it from the furnace unharmed and as white as snow.” The table cloth was reportedly made out of asbestos.

In the first half of the 20th century, asbestos was widely used in many domestic products. Homeowners were enticed to use asbestos paint and siding to improve the appearance and safety of their homes. On May 9, 1911, The Colorado Springs Gazette referred to asbestos as “The Mineral of Safety And Comfort”.

In the early 1970s, evidence began to emerge which proved asbestos dust posed a serious risk to the health of workers exposed to asbestos in the workplace. In 1967 Dr. Irving Selikoff, of the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, began to study the health and mortality of asbestos insulation workers. His research discovered that alarming rates of workers who were exposed to asbestos were suffering from lung cancer and a progressive lung disease caused by prolonged exposure to asbestos particles. The disease was later named asbestosis. On February 24, 1973, the Odessa American reported his testimony before a Senate subcommittee, in which Selikoff reported that of 17,800 asbestos insulation workers surveyed, nearly 459 died of lung cancer. He would go on to conclude that “Of the one million workers who have already been exposed… 200,000 will die of lung cancer, 70,000 of asbestosis, or lung scarring, and 150,000 of various other cancers.”

The 80s and 90s cast asbestos in a more sinister role than it had experienced in the past. As further research indicated the dangers of asbestos exposure, public sentiment turned against asbestos and people began to insist on the removal of asbestos from public places and banning its use in everyday products. In the early 90s, states began to create legislation to aid citizens filling lawsuits against asbestos companies and stripped away a 20-year time limit on litigation against asbestos producers and in some cases, vendors.

In January of 2005, the Ohio legislature passed a bill that put a limit on personal injury asbestos lawsuits. “States are beginning to improvise their own solutions…What alternative do we have?” stated Ohio Representative Bill Setz in The Chronicle Telegram on January 14, 2005. The article also notes that “(asbestos) lawsuits have pushed at least 76 companies nationwide into bankruptcy…”

In February of 2005, asbestos company W.R. Grace & Co, and seven of its former executives were indicted for covering up the danger that its mine in Libby, Montana, posed to miners and the town’s residents. The suit was brought against the company by the Environmental Protection Agency on charges that the company and its executives knowingly exposed miners and residents in Libby to asbestos and caused nearly 200 deaths and hundreds of illnesses. Attorney for Montana Bill Mercer was quoted in The Intelligencer on February 8, 2005, stating, “A human and environmental tragedy has occurred in Libby. This prosecution seeks to hold Grace and some of its executives responsible for the misconduct alleged in this indictment…”

In 1989, the EPA banned passed a final rule banning most products which contained asbestos. This rule was overturned by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in 1991, although certain products such as flooring felt, rollboard, and corrugated, commercial or specialty paper remained banned. As recent as 2001, more than 29 million tons of asbestos were imported for use in products throughout the US. Litigation concerning asbestos continues today and is still one of the largest issues insurance companies face.

The first intercollegiate game was played on February 9, 1895, by the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Hamline College with Minnesota winning 9-3. The game developed over time and on January 18, 1896, the first college basketball game was played with the current five-man format in Iowa City, Iowa. During the game, the University of Chicago defeated the University of Iowa by a score of 15 to 12.

Basketball at the university level quickly grew in the early 20th century and soon there were enough college teams that conferences began to form. In 1906, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) was created to govern the rules of eligibility for collegiate athletics. Four years later, the organization would change its name to become the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

In 1938, the Metropolitan Basketball Writers Association created the first college basketball tournament dubbed the “National Invitation Tournament.” That first tournament featured six teams and expanded over time to include 40 teams. The NCAA followed with a tournament of their own in 1939, which included eight teams and eventually grew to 65 teams.

The advent of the NIT and NCAA tournaments in the late 1930s changed the landscape of college basketball. These tournaments created a venue where the best teams in the country could compete against one another for title of “National Champion.” Until the late 1970s, the two tournaments were seen as equals with teams often favoring one over the other. In 1950, the City College of New York (CCNY) actually participated in and won both the NIT and NCAA tournaments. The tournaments were important for the sport of basketball because they allowed for emergence of dominant basketball schools, whose success in the NCAA or NIT helped to entice star high school players to their schools. Some of the early power-house schools such as the University of California Los Angeles, the University of Indiana, North Carolina, Duke and Kansas (whose basketball program was founded by Dr. James Naismith) still dominate the sport to this day. During the first 40 years of their existence, the NIT and NCAA tournaments vied for dominance over the sport. However, by the late 1970s, the NCAA tournament had become the premier college basketball tournament.

The NCAA tournament captures the attention of the nation because of what many people call the “Cinderella” factor. In an attempt to weed out the weakest, the tournaments are structured to allow the best teams to have the weakest opponents. Yet occasionally, a team can come out of nowhere and capture the attention of the sporting world. This was the case in 1983, when the heavily favored University of Houston Cougars were stunned by North Carolina State for the NCAA championship.

By the 1980s, college basketball was one of the premier sports in the country. The rapid growth of the National Basketball Association (NBA) led to increased interest in the college game, as it became the proving ground for future NBA stars. Consequently, many college players began to leave college early for the enticing pay of the NBA with some players entering the NBA immediately following high school. The NBA recently implemented an age limit to prevent players from joining a professional team right after high school. Although many premier players have chosen this route, the college game continues to thrive thanks to legions of dedicated fans and the belief that every player on every team has a shot to become an immortal in the history of the game.

From the late 14th century to the end of the 19th century, the Earth experienced a “Little Ice Age.” Extreme cold and harsh conditions caused several famines and the expansion of glaciers, most notably in the Alps, Scandinavia, Iceland and Alaska. However, by 1850 the temperature of the Earth had warmed considerably and scientists were looking for an answer.

The first theory of global warming came in 1824 when French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier discovered that the Earth’s temperature was slowly increasing. Fourier argued that the earth’s atmosphere traps solar radiation and reflects it back toward the earth.

In the late 19th century Fourier’s theory was labeled the “greenhouse effect” when Nobel Laureate Svante Arrhenius coined the term to explain how carbon dioxide traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. Arrhenius believed that the greenhouse effect was responsible for the onset of the ice ages. By the 1960s, many scientists dismissed this theory in favor of the hypothesis of Serbian geophysicist, Milutin Milankovitch, relating climate change to the orbital changes of the earth.

In the 1950s, amateur scientist G.S. Callendar warned that the greenhouse effect was true and dramatically impacting the atmosphere of the Earth. Callendar’s claims were termed the “Callendar effect,” and led to increased research on global warming. Over the next few decades, scientists developed ways to measure the Earth’s climate and devised mathematical models to better analyze global temperature. This led to a steady rise in the belief that human activity was dramatically effecting the environment. Scientific studies began to predict that increased carbon dioxide emissions, due to increased use of fossil fuels, would trigger an outbreak of global warming.

Media sources during the late 20th century were confused about the effects of the warming; some predicted another ice age, while others predicted the melting of ice caps, which would generate world wide flooding. In 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development more than 150 nations signed a declaration committing themselves to reducing carbon dioxide emissions in their countries. However, in 1994, the United Nations Panel on Climate Change asserted that global warming was still a threat and nations needed to enact drastic changes in order to negate the effects of global warming. This announcement sparked the creation of the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement to fight global warming. The protocol called for countries to reduce their emission of greenhouse gases and was to take effect in 2005. The treaty was signed and ratified by 125 countries. However, the United States, which is estimated to be the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gases, refused to sign the treaty.

Today, scientists disagree on the effects of global warming while some deny the phenomena all together. Despite these arguments many historians point out the direct relationship between man and the environment, often referencing the American Dust Bowl of the 1930s, where large scale soil erosion reduced parts of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas to arid deserts. Currently, many governments and corporations are working to reduce fuel emissions and produce “Earth friendly” products such as hybrid cars. Yet, many scientists warn that global warming is an imminent and pressing problem that needs to be addressed before it becomes irreversible.

San Antonio, Texas FlagSan Antonio is one of the most fought over cities in North America. During the first 100 years of existence, San Antonio was under Spanish control, until it briefly lost command in June 1813, after the Battle of Alazan. The Spanish then took charge of the city in August 1813, after the Battle of Medina, when the Republican Army of the North was massacred by a Royalist army that included a young lieutenant by the name of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.

The Spanish again lost command of the city in 1835 during the Siege of Bexar. One year later, the city of San Antonio would be the site of one of the most historic battles in American history, the Battle of the Alamo. On February 23, 1836, the Mexican army, led by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, arrived on the outskirts of the city; the Siege of the Alamo had begun.

The Alamo was defended by 189 Texans, divided between regular army soldiers led by Colonel William Travis and volunteer rifleman commanded by James Bowie. The Mexican army laid siege to the fortress for two weeks. During this time both sides received reinforcements and by March 5, 1836, the Texans were facing a Mexican army of nearly 2,000. The Mexicans launched an assault on the morning of March 6, 1836 and stormed the fortress. All 189 Texans were killed during the battle; however, nearly 1,600 Mexican soldiers were killed in the battle. After the battle, Santa Anna released some of the non-combatants, hoping to spread fear to the colonists, in fact, the opposite was achieved. The Mexican victory at the Alamo served to embolden the Texans.

Texas declared its independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836, and on April 21, 1836, General Santa Anna and his forces were defeated by Texans led by Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto. In 1842, Mexican forces would reclaim San Antonio twice, but neither seizure would last long enough for Mexico to create a foothold in the region. On December 28, 1845, Texas was granted statehood and admitted into the Union. However, control over San Antonio was again disputed during the early days of the Civil War, when a local militia forced the surrender of the federal arsenal even before the official secession of Texas on March 2, 1861.

After the Civil War, San Antonio prospered as a center of distribution for many trades. In 1877, the Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway finally reached the city, ushering in a new wave of economic expansion. By 1900, five other railroads had reached the city and the influx of new faces made San Antonio the largest city in Texas until the 1920s.

Due to its importance as a military center for the US Army and Air Force, San Antonio?s population grew significantly during World War II. The city contains five military installations: Fort Sam Houston and the Kelly, Randolph, Brooks and Lackland Air Force Bases. San Antonio is also home to the first skyscraper in the state.

The city enjoys a fruitful tourist industry, drawing tens of thousands of visitors every year. The city itself has many attractions, such as The Alamo, the famous River Walk and one of the highest grossing professional sports teams in America, the San Antonio Spurs. The Spurs have made San Antonio their home since 1973, winning two NBA championships. Additionally, the city?s large Catholic community prompted a visit by Pope John Paul II during his American tour in 1987.

Professor Robert H. Goddard ushered in the rocket age in 1914, patenting the first liquid fueled rocket. 12 years later, Professor Goddard would launch his first successful liquid fueled rocket, marking the beginning of man’s journey into space. The launch also marked the dawn of rockets as weapons. The Nazi’s used rockets to bombard London during World War II and made many attempts to use rockets in the creation of the atomic bomb.

Professor Goddard passed away on July 10, 1945. The next year, the United States launched the first rocket built specifically to leave the Earth’s atmosphere, reaching a height of 50 miles, to be followed in 1949 with the launch of the V-2 WAC-Corporal, the first rocket to reach outer space. However, the “Space Race” would not officially begin until 1957, when the Soviet Union launched the satellite Sputnik into orbit.

Sputnik was launched into orbit on October 4, 1957, on the back of a converted inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM). The satellite orbited the Earth every 96 minutes and stayed in space until 1958. The United States would launch their first satellite only months later on January 31, 1958. The satellite, dubbed “Explorer”, was launched on by a Jupiter-C rocket and would discover the existence of the Van Allen Belts, which had been theorized by Professor James Van Allen of the University of Iowa. In 1959 the United States selected seven men to be the first “astronauts”, the group consisted of Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Wally Schirra, Alan Shepard and Donald Slayton, one of whom was intended to be the first man in space. Unfortunately for the United States, the Soviet Union beat them to the punch on this front as well, launching “Cosmonaut” Yuri Gagarin a full month before Alan Shepard became the first American in space.

In 1962 John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth. Glenn, a decorated World War II pilot, was forced to take manual control of the ship when its automatic altitude control system began to fail, guiding Friendship 7 safely back to the Earth. In 1965 the Soviet Union again managed to one-up the United States when cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov left his capsule and took the first “spacewalk.”

In 1969, the United States would finally accomplish the mission that President John F. Kennedy had put forth in 1961. On July 20, Neil Armstrong opened the hatch on the lunar-lander “Eagle” and took what he immortally described as “one giant step for man, one giant leap for mankind” onto the surface of the moon.

Over the next three decades the United States would take significant steps forward in the exploration of space; unfortunately, these achievements would not be accomplished without accompanying tragedies. In 1986 the Space Shuttle Challenger, carrying a crew that included Christa McAuliffe (who was to be the first teacher in space) exploded 73 seconds after launch, killing all aboard. This tragedy would be repeated in 2003 when the Space Shuttle Columbia (which had been in service for 22 years) broke apart during re-entry and killed its seven person crew.

Despite these tragedies the space program has made significant discoveries, such as the possibility of life on Mars and the existence of water on the moon. While there will undoubtedly be future setbacks, the United States has set a clear agenda for the space program moving forward, and the discoveries that await will certainly help scientists in their quest to explain the origins of our planet and unlock the mysteries of the universe.